{"id":27362,"date":"2025-10-14T07:00:05","date_gmt":"2025-10-14T12:00:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.law.columbia.edu\/climatechange\/?p=27362"},"modified":"2025-10-10T10:51:01","modified_gmt":"2025-10-10T15:51:01","slug":"the-scope-of-climate-reparation-claims-at-future-cops-and-beyond","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.law.columbia.edu\/climatechange\/2025\/10\/14\/the-scope-of-climate-reparation-claims-at-future-cops-and-beyond\/","title":{"rendered":"\u00a0\u2018The Scope of Climate Reparation Claims at Future COPs and Beyond\u2019"},"content":{"rendered":"
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\u00a0<\/b>Climate change is a common concern for humankind. The physical changes in the climate system have devastating impacts on human and natural ecosystems\u2014for example, loss of ecosystems,\u00a0forced human mobility and displacement, etc. While everyone is impacted to some extent, those living in the <\/span>Least Developed Countries (LDCs) or Small Island Developing States (SIDS)<\/span><\/a> are facing the negative impacts of climate change disproportionately.<\/span><\/p>\n

Finance is crucial in addressing climate-induced risks in vulnerable developing countries. <\/span>Loss and Damage (L&D)<\/span><\/a> arising from the negative impacts of climate change has been one of the most contentious concepts of international climate change negotiations in comparison to other two pillars of climate action, <\/span>mitigation<\/span><\/a> and <\/span>adaptation<\/span><\/a>. More than thirty years of COP negotiations on L&D have, somehow, undermined genuine claims from developing countries for climate reparations. Even so, however, the embedded ambiguity in those negotiations keeps the door open for climate reparation discourse at future COPs.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

L&D incorporates adverse residual risks associated with the negative impacts of climate change which are beyond adaptation efforts. Surprisingly, neither the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (<\/span>UNFCCC<\/span><\/a>) nor the Paris Agreement define L&D. The concept was first specifically mentioned at the 13<\/span>th<\/span> Conference of the Parties (<\/span>COP) to the UNFCCC<\/span><\/a> in 2007 and has been developed since then through COP negotiations. It was institutionalised in 2013 through the <\/span>Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts (WIM)<\/span><\/a>, which <\/span>kept L&D under the purview of adaptation. In 2022, the <\/span>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)<\/span><\/a> defined L&D as harm\/ risks either observed or projected as well as economic and non-economic, arising from the negative impacts of climate change. It includes extreme weather events and slow onset events.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

This blog post explores the history of discussions of climate reparations at the COPs. As I explain, claims for climate reparations have been considered since the very first COP negotiations. In 1991, the idea was introduced by Vanuatu, one of the SIDS, with a proposal for an International<\/span> Climate Fund and a separate International Insurance Pool<\/span><\/a> to address the negative impacts of climate change. The proposal faced significant opposition from developed countries and thus did not move forward. But the concept of insurance was revived at <\/span>COP7<\/span><\/a> in 2001. <\/span>COP13<\/span><\/a> in 2007<\/span> adopted the <\/span>Bali Action Plan<\/span><\/a> and solicited opinions from Parties regarding the newly established <\/span>Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA)<\/span><\/a>. In response, <\/span>Micronesia<\/span><\/a>, <\/span>Tuvalu<\/span><\/a>,<\/span> and others submitted detailed proposals for climate change compensation mechanisms. COP15 failed to reach any decision regarding those proposals. But at COP19 in 2013,\u00a0 the WIM was established — a significant institutional development on L&D. Building on this, the <\/span>Paris Agreement<\/span><\/a>, adopted at COP21,<\/span> recognises in Article 8 the importance of addressing and minimising the risks of the L&D. It acknowledges L&D as a standalone pillar of climate action. Notably, however, <\/span>Paragraph 51 of Decision1\/CP.21<\/span><\/a>explicitly excluded liability for climate-induced L&D.<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

A review of the wording used by Parties at COPs reveals two distinct framings of L&D in climate negotiations \u2013 a) a risk framing that calls for a risk management strategy out of international solidarity; and b) a harm framing that claims compensation or liability as a key component of L&D mechanism. This post argues that such bifurcation in L&D negotiations limits the development and progress of the <\/span>Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)<\/span><\/a>. According to <\/span>Kraal et. al.<\/span><\/a>,<\/span> the current formation of the LDF is more like a risk management strategy, rather than a reparative tool.\u00a0 It, somehow, ignores the historical aspect of this concept and instead broadly focuses on the post-harm mechanism and economic aspects of it. <\/span>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

But, as this post explains, Paragraph 51 of Decision1\/CP.21 does not negate the scope of climate reparation, completely. There are still possibilities for climate reparation discourse within the climate change negotiations, for example, by examining the legal ramifications of COP decisions or the decision-making process of the Paris Agreement or by interpreting the Paris Agreement in the light of the Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties (VCLT).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Firstly<\/b>, while Paragraph 51 of Decision1\/CP.21 excludes liability or compensation claims,\u00a0 the Paris Agreement does not include any such exclusion in the treaty text. <\/span>Scholars<\/span><\/a> have denied the legality of such COP decisions in the absence of any \u2018hook\u2019 in the parent treaty, e.g. the UNFCCC prohibiting compensation claims. COP decisions are not norm-creating international law. Rather such decisions are <\/span>flexible and subject to change with the best available scientific data or change of situation<\/span><\/a> at subsequent COPs.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Secondly<\/b>, <\/span>some scholars<\/span><\/a> further consider that Paragraph 51 of Decision 1\/CP.21 is non-applicable to the Paris Agreement as it was not adopted by a COP serving as the <\/span>Meeting of the Parties to the Agreement (CMA)<\/span><\/a>. The decision-making process of the COP serving as the CMA is detailed in Article 16(2) of the Paris Agreement, which says that \u201cParties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Agreement may participate as observers in the proceedings of any session,\u201d but \u201cdecisions under this Agreement shall be taken only by those that are Parties to this Agreement.\u201d Paragraph 51 was part of Decision1\/ CP.21, which adopted the Paris Agreement, and was not endorsed by any subsequent COP serving as the CMA.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Thirdly<\/b>, one of the preambular paragraphs of the Paris Agreement notes \u201c<\/span>the importance for some of the concept of \u2018climate justice\u2019<\/span><\/a>,<\/span> when taking action to address climate change.\u201d Article 8 of the Paris Agreement establishes L&D as one of the pillars of climate action. In this regard, action to address climate change includes L&D, along with mitigation and adaptation. This post \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0stresses on this \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0approach of the COP negotiators e.g. noting the importance for some of the concept of climate justice while adopting the text. It indicates the acceptance of the critical link between climate justice and effective response towards the negative impacts of climate change. \u2018Climate justice\u2019 calls for an inquiry into the root causes of climate change. It brings back the notion of \u2018historical emissions of GHGs by developed countries. In this regard, <\/span>Article 31(1) of the VCLT, 1969<\/span><\/a>\u00a0is pertinent. It states that multilateral treaties \u201cshall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their the context and in light of its object and purpose.\u201d\u00a0 The preamble and the Annexes of a treaty do have significance in identifying the context for the purpose of a treaty interpretation, as per <\/span>Article 31(2) of the VCLT, 1969<\/span><\/a>. The Paris Agreement in its Preambular paragraphs and article 2(2) mention\u00a0equity and\u00a0common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR\/RC) as guiding principles for its implementation. The word \u2018<\/span>equity\u2019<\/span><\/a> itself asks for just, impartial, and fair treatment of different countries in distributing the burden and benefits arising from the negative impacts of climate change. Most significantly, Paragraph 51 does not attract any of the above-mentioned provisions of the Paris Agreement, except Article 8. Therefore, the implications of such provisions e.g. the preambular paragraphs and article 2(2) are equally applicable in setting the scene\/ anchoring a normative basis for climate reparation discourse at future COPs.<\/span><\/p>\n

Fourthly<\/b>, on perusing the history of COP negotiations, it seems that Paragraph 51 of Decision1\/CP.21 is a reflection of the States\u2019 subjective understanding and, somehow, politically driven legal consensus based on their own interests. The reason for considering it as politically driven legal consensus is the countries\u2019 strategic move, which shaped the development of COP negotiations and overall, the climate change regime, e.g. the negotiations for long-term climate finance at <\/span>COP15<\/span><\/a> or the <\/span>new collective quantified goals (NCQG)<\/span><\/a> at COP29.<\/span><\/p>\n

With the advancement of science, especially the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u2019s <\/span>\u00a06<\/span>th<\/span> Assessment Report<\/span><\/a>, the devastating impacts of climate change and its associated risks are well-known. The notion of climate-induced harm, and<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>the need for finance to redress those, is embedded in the Preamble of the\u00a0Paris Agreement. Therefore, this blog post suggests that Parties\u2019 strategic move at future COPs should be objective while addressing climate-induced L&D.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Lastly<\/b>, Paragraph 51 cannot nullify the implications of state responsibility for internationally wrongful acts or no-harm principle under customary international law in conceptualising claims for climate reparations. The <\/span>advisory proceedings before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on obligations of states in respect of climate change<\/span><\/a> counted with the participation of 96 states and 11 international organisations and on 23<\/span>rd<\/span> July 2025, the Court delivered its advisory opinion. The ICJ reinforces the <\/span>states\u2019 binding obligations to prevent significant environmental harm and protect the climate system<\/span><\/a> for present and future generations. In 2024, <\/span>the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)<\/span><\/a> also delivered its advisory opinion on climate change and international law. That opinion covers several important issues, for example, anthropogenic GHGs emissions as a form of pollution of the marine environment, state obligations to prevent, reduce and control that pollution, and the role of the Paris Agreement and the best available science. These observations of the Advisory Opinion have global implications in developing <\/span>the growing consensus on state obligations<\/span><\/a> regarding climate-induced risks. Furthermore, the German Regional Higher Court, while dismissing the lawsuit for low probability of harm to sustain a claim, sets significant precedent regarding corporate responsibility for climate-induced harm, in the <\/span>LLIUYA v. RWE<\/span><\/i><\/a> case.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Overall, it is clear that the embedded ambiguity in the international climate change negotiations regarding L&D keeps enough space for climate reparation discourse both at future COPs and beyond it through international or regional courts and tribunals. Let us see what holds in the future of global climate policy in terms of reparative claims.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

\u00a0Climate change is a common concern for humankind. The physical changes in the climate system have devastating impacts on human and natural ecosystems\u2014for example, loss of ecosystems,\u00a0forced human mobility and displacement, etc. While everyone is impacted to some extent, those living in the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) or Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are facing […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2336,"featured_media":26440,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[69613],"tags":[69867],"class_list":{"0":"post-27362","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-blog-series","8":"tag-blog-series-climate-reparations","9":"czr-hentry"},"yoast_head":"\n\u00a0\u2018The Scope of Climate Reparation Claims at Future COPs and Beyond\u2019 - Climate Law Blog<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.law.columbia.edu\/climatechange\/2025\/10\/14\/the-scope-of-climate-reparation-claims-at-future-cops-and-beyond\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"\u00a0\u2018The Scope of Climate Reparation Claims at Future COPs and Beyond\u2019 - Climate Law Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"\u00a0Climate change is a common concern for humankind. 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