{"id":24539,"date":"2025-03-11T08:00:48","date_gmt":"2025-03-11T13:00:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.law.columbia.edu\/climatechange\/?p=24539"},"modified":"2025-08-11T10:32:08","modified_gmt":"2025-08-11T15:32:08","slug":"the-icjs-advisory-opinion-on-climate-change-key-takeaways-from-the-2024-hearings-part-2","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.law.columbia.edu\/climatechange\/2025\/03\/11\/the-icjs-advisory-opinion-on-climate-change-key-takeaways-from-the-2024-hearings-part-2\/","title":{"rendered":"The ICJ\u2019s Advisory Opinion on Climate Change: Key Takeaways from the 2024 Hearing (Part 2)"},"content":{"rendered":"
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Copyright ICJ\/CIJ\/Frank van Beek<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

This blog post is Part 2 of a three-part series highlighting the main legal arguments presented during the hearings of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the advisory opinion request<\/a> related to States\u2019 obligations regarding climate change. Part 1<\/a> focused on discussions regarding applicable law, and the no-harm rule. Part 2 focuses on arguments relating to (i) climate change and human rights, (ii) extraterritoriality of climate rights, and (iii) State obligations under climate treaties.<\/p>\n

Climate Change and Human Rights<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Unsurprisingly, the link between climate change and human rights was a key point of contention during the oral hearings before the ICJ. Several States underscored that climate change can impair the enjoyment of human rights. For instance, Cameroon<\/a> argued that climate change affects the rights to self-determination, life, access to water, food, health, private and family life, and development.<\/p>\n

Several States, including Costa Rica<\/a>, El Salvador<\/a>, Ghana<\/a>, Mexico<\/a>, Slovenia<\/a>, and Spain<\/a> (among others), emphasized the relevance of the right to a healthy environment to address the legal questions at hand. Cameroon <\/a>even urged the ICJ to confirm the existence of the right to a healthy environment as a customary international law norm. Spain<\/a> stressed that Resolution A\/76\/L.75<\/a>, in which the UNGA recognized the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment, should be considered \u2018as one of the key elements when interpreting instruments of conventional and customary law\u2019 under Article 31<\/a> of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT).<\/p>\n

Several representatives also emphasized that States have obligations to protect human rights from the adverse effects of climate change. For instance, Albania <\/a>argued that States have obligations to (i) prevent significant harm to the climate system that could foreseeably violate human rights, (ii) ensure that the measures taken in response to climate change do not violate human rights, and (iii) provide redress for human rights violations. In this context, South Africa<\/a> stressed that the preamble<\/a> of the Paris Agreement \u2018acknowledges that human rights should be considered when taking action to address climate change, especially when it comes to the protection of the rights of the most vulnerable persons.\u2019<\/p>\n

In contrast, several States questioned the applicability of human rights law or contended that they do not have obligations under human rights law to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and ensure the protection of the climate system. For example, Canada <\/a>argued that the \u2018positive impact\u2019 climate action could have on human rights \u2018cannot be relied upon to broaden the scope of States\u2019 obligations under international human rights law.\u2019 Canada <\/a>added that these obligations were not designed to address greenhouse gas emissions and \u2018do not lend themselves to claims by any rights holder for the protection of the climate system.\u2019<\/p>\n

Germany <\/a>argued that States fulfilling the Paris Agreement \u2018simultaneously fulfill their human rights obligations.\u2019 Germany<\/a> also stressed that the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment \u2018does not yet form part and parcel of current customary international law.\u2019 Similarly, the United States<\/a> asserted that international law does not obligate States to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions \u2018nor does it currently provide for a human right to a healthy environment.\u2019 The United States <\/a>further contended that this right lacks extensive and uniform state practice and opinio juris<\/em> to support it.<\/p>\n

Climate Rights and Extraterritoriality<\/strong><\/h2>\n

States differed substantially on the issue of the extraterritorial applicability<\/a> of human rights treaties. Several States asserted that the scope of States\u2019 human rights obligations extends beyond their territorial borders. For instance, Kiribati<\/a> argued that these obligations have an extraterritorial scope because greenhouse gas emissions can threaten the existence of States and violate their right to sovereignty. Seychelles<\/a> and Chile<\/a> also contended that human rights obligations extend beyond a State\u2019s territory, urging the ICJ to consider the approaches of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR<\/a>)<\/u> and the Committee on the Rights of the Child<\/a>, which recognize that the obligation to respect human rights extends to the harmful effects of greenhouse gases beyond a State\u2019s territory if emitted under their control (see here<\/a> and here<\/a>).<\/p>\n

The European Union<\/a> also requested that the ICJ clarify the concept of \u2018jurisdiction\u2019 and the criterion of \u2018effective control\u2019 in the context of climate change. Germany<\/a> cautioned that a broad interpretation could lead to an \u2018unlimited expansion\u2019 of States\u2019 jurisdiction and \u2018responsibilities towards people practically anywhere in the world.\u2019 The German Constitutional Court<\/a> and the European Court of Human Rights<\/a> recently developed a narrow interpretation of the issue and did not allow for claims from non-citizens. Similarly, Canada emphasized that \u2018the jurisdictional competence of a State is primarily territorial\u2019 and that States may only incur extraterritorial obligations under international human rights law in specific exceptions. According to Canada<\/a>, one such exception could be peremptory norms of customary international law (jus cogens<\/em>), but environmental principles have not yet reached that status.<\/p>\n

Obligations in the Climate Treaties<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Due Diligence<\/em><\/h3>\n

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN<\/a>) asserted that every State has the obligation \u2018to do its utmost to limit global warming to 1.5\u00b0C, and to limit any overshoot as much as possible, and to reverse it.\u2019 This temperature threshold is expressly included in Article 2<\/a> of the Paris Agreement. The IUCN added that this \u2018is an obligation of stringent due diligence, and it varies according to States\u2019 different responsibilities and capabilities.\u2019 Several States, including Brazil<\/a>, also emphasized that the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) should inform the interpretation of the expected degree of due diligence. For example, Brazil asserted that developing States should have a wider margin of discretion than developed States.<\/p>\n

Obligation to Mitigate<\/em><\/h3>\n

Bangladesh<\/a>, Sierra Leone<\/a>, and Malawi<\/a>, among others, also stressed the importance of States adopting \u2018all necessary measures\u2019 to avoid exceeding the 1.5 degree Celsius threshold. In particular, Malawi<\/a> contended that the Paris Agreement temperature goal requires States to take concrete measures, such as adopting regulatory frameworks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enforcing these frameworks, conducting environmental impact assessments, and providing technical assistance to vulnerable States.<\/p>\n

During the oral proceedings, the IUCN<\/a> also argued that the Paris Agreement establishes the emission reduction pathway\u00a0 for limiting the temperature increase in its Article 4, paragraph 1<\/a>. This provision requires State parties to \u2018undertake rapid reductions\u2019 in greenhouse gas emissions in accordance with the \u2018best available science.\u2019 The IUCN<\/a> noted that, according to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the global stocktake decision, \u2018the only way to hold warming to 1.5\u00b0C is by deep, rapid and sustained reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions of 43 percent by 2030 and 60 percent by 2035, relative to 2019 levels.\u2019 This statement was especially relevant given that, before the oral proceedings commenced, a group of authors of the IPCC reports met with members of the ICJ<\/a> to improve the Judges\u2019 understanding of the key scientific findings presented in the IPCC’s periodic assessment reports.<\/p>\n

Obligation to Present Progressive NDCs and Fair Share Standard<\/em><\/h3>\n

The IUCN<\/a> also affirmed that a core obligation to achieve the Paris Agreement\u2019s temperature goal is to prepare, communicate, and maintain successive nationally determined contributions <\/a>(NDCs) every five years. Under Article 4<\/a> of the Paris Agreement, these contributions must \u2018represent a progression beyond the Party\u2019s then current NDC and reflect its highest possible ambition.\u2019 According to the IUCN<\/a>, these requirements establish due diligence obligations. Article 4<\/a> also specifies that States shall pursue domestic mitigation measures to achieve the objectives of the NDCs. The IUCN argued that this \u2018is an obligation of conduct to adopt measures that are necessary, meaningful, timely and, indeed, effective.\u2019 France<\/a> similarly concluded that this is an obligation of conduct and States cannot use it to justify \u2018inaction or inertia.\u2019<\/p>\n

Antigua and Barbuda<\/a> asserted that \u2018each State must set its proposed contribution to a level corresponding to a fair share of the remaining carbon budget to meet the 1.5\u00b0C temperature goal.\u2019 Similarly, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire<\/a> and Chile<\/a> referred to the judgment in KlimaSeniorinnen<\/em><\/a> to conclude that simply having an NDC is insufficient and that States must also \u2018produce a carbon budget and align it to the annual synthesis reports.\u2019 In contrast, the European Union<\/a> argued that there is no \u2018commonly agreed mechanism for allocating or attributing so-called fair shares or for calculating so-called carbon-budgets.\u2019 Switzerland<\/a> also argued that there is no legal basis, either in customary international law or in treaty law, for setting specific emission reduction targets or emissions budgets for individual States.<\/p>\n

Obligation to Adapt<\/em><\/h3>\n

Several representatives also discussed the obligations of States related to adaptation. For example, the Netherlands<\/a> emphasized that adaptation should involve \u2018proactive planning\u2019 that considers the latest scientific data and regional climate projections. This approach helps ensure that adaptation measures enhance climate resilience, align with sustainable development goals, and do not adversely affect \u2018those segments of the population that are already vulnerable, such as women, children, Indigenous peoples and those living in extreme poverty.\u2019<\/p>\n

Albania<\/a>, Bangladesh<\/a>, Bolivia<\/a>, Brazil<\/a>, India<\/a>, and Saint Lucia<\/a>, among others, also underscored that adaptation requires financial support, technology transfer, and capacity building. According to Article 9<\/a> of the Paris Agreement, States \u2018shall provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties with respect to both mitigation and adaptation.\u2019 Bolivia<\/a> highlighted that accessing climate finance should be simplified and expedited, prioritizing grants over loans.<\/p>\n

Bangladesh<\/a> highlighted four key points: (i) developed countries must take measures to ensure that the necessary funds for adapting to climate impacts are both available and accessible; (ii) developed States must cooperate by contributing relevant scientific, technological, technical, socio-economic, and legal information to developing and climate-vulnerable countries; (iii) States must take steps to preserve and restore climate-resilient ecosystems, and (iv) States must actively fund or contribute to capacity-building initiatives in climate-vulnerable nations to protect fundamental human rights. According to Bangladesh<\/a>, all these measures must be \u2018informed by the best available science and subject to the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.\u2019<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

This blog post is Part 2 of a three-part series highlighting the main legal arguments presented during the hearings of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the advisory opinion request related to States\u2019 obligations regarding climate change. Part 1 focused on discussions regarding applicable law, and the no-harm rule. Part 2 focuses on arguments […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2336,"featured_media":24542,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[5673],"tags":[69255,68627,177],"class_list":{"0":"post-24539","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-litigation","8":"tag-advisory-opinion","9":"tag-global-climate-litigation","10":"tag-icj","11":"czr-hentry"},"yoast_head":"\nThe ICJ\u2019s Advisory Opinion on Climate Change: Key Takeaways from the 2024 Hearing (Part 2) - Climate Law Blog<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.law.columbia.edu\/climatechange\/2025\/03\/11\/the-icjs-advisory-opinion-on-climate-change-key-takeaways-from-the-2024-hearings-part-2\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The ICJ\u2019s Advisory Opinion on Climate Change: Key Takeaways from the 2024 Hearing (Part 2) - Climate Law Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"This blog post is Part 2 of a three-part series highlighting the main legal arguments presented during the hearings of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the advisory opinion request related to States\u2019 obligations regarding climate change. 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